Juvenile Corrections Essays - Penology, Prison, Workhouse

Juvenile Corrections Jeshondra Lucas CJ 564 Seminar in Corrections Mississippi Valley State University November 27, 2017 The historical development of the juvenile justice system dates back to the Roman Times. The Roman law gave parents the responsibility for punishing their child. Back in the Roman times, the child's age was the factor of if the juveniles were capable of being punished by their parents, or if they would be punished by the court with adult charges. At seven years of age, in the Roman law if that child had committed a crime. The child would be held accountable for their actions and no longer be under the punishment of their parents, but under the punishment of their king. In England in the 1500's shires and other people were to carry out what the king had wanted done. The Bridewell Workhouse was built in London in 1557, this workhouse was a place where inmates would go to provide cheap labor to please mercantile. Guards claimed that the work that the inmates were doing was therapeutic and rehabilitative. In the Middle Ages, children were seen as property. Male children were the head of all households and the patriarch handled his homes as he pleased. When parents broke the law, the children were forced to take care of themselves. A lot of them stole things to provide for the family, placing them in the same situation to face adult charges. During the 1600s in England, government began to consider the plight of the child (Clear, Reisig, Cole, 2016.) Children fell under the protection of the king or queen. The crown would act as the parens patriae which means the crown could act as a guardian of any child, especially one with rights to inherited property. In the United States Juvenile Justice has shifted to reflect social, intellectual, and political currents of crime. The Puritan Period takes place from 1646-1824. Americans stopped the practice of English laws in the 1800s. The Massachusetts Stubborn Child Law in 1646 was an early attempt to deal with problem children. The Puritans simply voiced the need for problem children to be disciplined by their parents and those who refused to obey their parents be dealt with by law. The Refuge Period was 1824-1899, children were urged to learn good work habits and study skills. More reform happened throughout the Juvenile Court Period of 1899-1960, The Juvenile Rights Period of 1960-1980, Crime Control Period of 1980-2005, and the Evidence Based Period of 2005 to present days. From 1930 through 1980, the incarceration rate was pretty stable in the United States (Clear, Reisig, Cole, 2016.) In today's society there has been tremendous growth leading to prison overcrowding. We cite prison overcrowding by five reasons since the crime rate does not match the incarceration rate. We credit the increase of prisoners to increased arrests and more likely incarceration, tougher sentencing, prison construction, the war on drugs, and state and local politics. There are nearly 19 state prison systems that operate above capacity. Prison overcrowding may violate constitutional standards, decrease access to some much needed programs and services, create major administrative problems, and increase prison violence. The Null Strategy, Construction Strategy, Intermediate Sanctions and Prison Population Reduction are four ways the states try to combat prison crowding. A lot of sentences are due to the race and ethnicity of the person committing the crime. Disparity is of ten used to target certain groups. References: Clear, T. R., Reisig, M. D., Cole, G. F. (2016). American Corrections (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Understanding the Eval () PHP Language Construct

Understanding the Eval () PHP Language Construct The PHP eval () construct is used to evaluate an input string as PHP and then process it as such. Eval() is not a function, but it works like one in the sense that it outputs everything- except instead of outputting it as text, it outputs it as PHP code to be executed. One use of the eval() construct is to store code in a database to execute later. Example of Eval() LanguageConstruct Here is a simple example of coding for the eval() language construct. ; eval(\$a \$a\;); print $a . ; ? This code example outputs My friends are $name and $name2 when first called with the print statement, and it outputs  My friends are Joe and Jim when called the second time after running eval (). Requirements and Characteristics of Eval() The passed code cant be wrapped in opening and closing PHP tags.The passed code must be valid PHP.All statements must be terminated with a semicolon.A return statement terminates the code evaluation.Any variable defined or changed in eval() remains after it terminates.What a fatal error occurs in the evaluated code, the script exits.Because eval() is a language construct and not a function, it cant be used in higher-order functions. The Danger of Using Eval() The PHP manual discourages the use of the eval() construct, stressing its use is very dangerous because arbitrary PHP code can be executed. Users are instructed to use any other option than eval() unless that is not possible. The use of PHP eval() construct presents security risks.

Mobile Computing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Mobile Computing - Research Paper Example Further, the mobile banking security risks also cause distortion of the financial information and transactions of the victim. Ultimately, the whole system of mobile banking is compromised. This escalates the number of fraud cases with every attempt at conveniently performing business transactions via the mobile phones. Most financial institutions, including the best in the world, can attest to the insecurity of mobile banking (Odoke, 2011). The technology behind the personal data assistants, iPads and e-Readers demystify the need for newspapers, paper books, music CDs and gameDVDs. This is due to various valid reasons. First, the advanced gadgets offer faster solutions for the thirst of information than the original books and newspapers. Further, information that the gadgets give people access to is from different sources. This makes them a better option for comparison of information from different sources than the traditional newspapers and books. People get timely updates from their gadgets instead of waiting for publishing of newspapers and paper books (Guardian on Kindle). The combined efforts of these advantages of the new technology gadgets drive the public from acquiring the traditional newspapers and paper books. This changes the reading culture of people and decreases the amount of revenue from the sale of books, newspapers and other traditional devices. The public chooses to move to a cheaper way of acquiring information and entertainment; a more convenient means that suits almost everyone’s lifestyle (Curwen & Whalley,

School Vouchers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

School Vouchers - Essay Example Due to the multifaceted effect of the said system it is important to consider the advantages of the system over the disadvantages (Walberg, and Wang 2-15). When it comes to the study of the issues regarding the voucher system for schools, there are the two sides. The side that affirm the importance of the used of the school vouchers and the side that questions the feasibility of the propositions and policies are vital to the study of the school voucher system (Kupermintz 2). The main objective of the study if to present the importance of the application of school voucher system. To be able to determine the importance of school voucher system, views on the different aspects are required. Based on the study of the different issues related to the system, there are different points that can be given attention. These points include the educational aspect itself, social aspect, and political aspect. It is important to give attention to these issues to be able to realize the vitality of the voucher system. The primary evidence of the importance and applicability of the school voucher is in relation to the a... Although there are different contradictions and criticism regarding the issue, it is important to consider that the main objective is to be able to provide access to education. The subsequent evidence in support of the school voucher system is the aim of the proponents of the establishment of the system to target the improvement in terms of educating the population. Generally the view of the group that opposes the system is the fact that optimization of the resources if not guaranteed and that the possible loss in terms of fund can be put to the improvement of the public schools which are considered to require more form the government to be able to improve. This can be considered to be affected by the school vouchers due to the fact that in most cases these privileges are also from the government and government officials. Although there is an important point being presented by the groups that question the feasibility of the school vouchers it is important to consider the different advantages that are related to the system. It can be considered as an optimistic action to be able to alleviate a larger portion of the population from illiteracy. It can be considered as a bold action to be able to pursue the advocacy for school voucher due to the fact that it is opt to be questioned by different groups. The advocacy for the continuance of the school voucher system is important for the people who have the capability to avail the requirements and the privileges of the provision system due to the fact that the people being helped can make the difference. When it comes to the different aspects that can be discerned by the groups and institutions in the society that are against the continuation of the provision of school

Hispanic American Diversity Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Hispanic American Diversity - Research Paper Example The end result is that the inhabitants of the country, whether legalized citizens or otherwise can now be classified into several distinct groups such as Whites, Hispanics, African Americans, and Asians. Hispanics now constitute the second largest classifiable ethnic group in the United States after Whites. This paper reviews the second largest ethnic group in the country, namely the Hispanics, or the Latinos as they are often commonly referred to. The Hispanics are primarily Spanish speaking immigrants from the regions south of the United States, and include immigrants from countries such as Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic. They have a lot in common even though many factors prevent a uniform classification. The clichà © ‘unity in diversity’ may not hold good here because the political, social, economic, religious, and family factors within each of these immigrants vary. Hence, this paper will also study the diversity and commonality among Hispanic groups with focus on the above mentioned factors. Every immigrant population will have a history or reason for migration to another land. In this case, history has played a diverse and decisive role in each of the above group’s large scale presence in United States’ soil. Some of them had moved because of political unrest while others have moved to exploit the better economic and social conditions that prevailed in the United States. Of the four major ethnic groups in the USA, only Mexico shares a geographical border which is nearly 2.000 miles long. Patrolling the border is a problem especially due to movement of illegal immigrants from Mexico. Schaefer (2006) in his book ‘Racial and Ethnic Groups’ records that â€Å"in the war-ending Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed February 2, 1848, Mexico acknowledged the annexation of Texas by the United States and ceded California and most of Arizona and New Mexico to the United States for $15 million† (258). This resulted

Adaptation of the Fennec Fox to the Desert

Adaptation of the Fennec Fox to the Desert How the fennec fox (Vulpes zedra) has adapted to the desert environment The fennec fox is the smallest member of the Vulpes genus (formally in the Fennecus genus) only weighing 2.2 – 3.3 lbs. It is highly distinguishable by its huge ears measuring 6 inches, and a body length of up to 16 inches. It is a nocturnal animal that stays in its burrow and rests for the hottest parts of the day (The Nature of Wildworks, 2014.). It is a highly social animal and lives in family groups of up to 10 individuals (Fox, 1975). Formerly in the fennecus genus, it was later re-classified into the Vulpes genus which is the main taxonomic group of all foxes. Its geographical range is the north Sahara and Arabian deserts. The fox is under decline due to being hunted for the fur and pet trade which has had significant impacts on the wild species (The Nature of Wildworks, 2014.) The fennec fox has many adaptions to living in a desert environment. These can be broken down into 3 categories; Morphological, Physiological and Behavioural. Morphological Morphological adaptions are changes in the animal’s structure that helps it adapt to the extreme conditions of the Saharan dessert. One of the most significant morphological adaptations that the fennec possesses is its large ears. The ears are used to dissipate heat and maintain the optimum body temperature of the animal (Wathen, et al., 1971). The ear needs to be large to have a large surface area for heat dissipation. The statement that these actually cool the animal is not entirely true, they do not cool the animal and lower its body temperature, but instead maintain the optimum body temperature. In a study on jack rabbits, the ears were found to dissipate nearly 100% of all metabolic heat at air temperatures of only 30Â °C (Wathen, et al., 1971). This is only possible if the temperature of the fox is above the environmental temperature. The ears also play a critical role in nocturnal hunting (Wathen, et al., 1971). The large pinnae of the ear help direct low level sound i nto the ear which gives the fennec acute hearing allowing directional hearing (Ewer, 1973). This is a key adaption for hunting at night due to the low light levels, thus giving the fennec the ability to hunt effectively at night using sound as well as excellent night vision. The feet of the fennec are adapted to walking on the hot sand by having hairs covering their fleshy foot pads (Ewer, 1973). This prevents the foot from actually touching the scolding sand and will prevent injury when the fox is digging its burrow and walking across the hot dessert floor. The front paws are specially designed for digging burrows which the fennecs live and breeds in (Ewer, 1973). The fur of the fennec like most dessert animals is vital to coping with desert life. Not only does this insulate the animal, but studies have shown that the light fur of the animal can also reflect the solar radiation, therefore lessening the impact and reducing the heat load on the animal (Dawson Brown, 1970). This is most true in the fennec fox due to its sandy coloured or sometimes white fur. Meanwhile the thickness of the fur is a protection from the solar radiation of the skin. By creating this barrier, the fur prevents any damage to the skin from direct solar radiation. This is because the fur, as said before, partially reflects the solar radiation while the thicker deeper fur absorbs the heat (Dawson Brown, 1970). The heat absorption also helps the fox survive the freezing dessert nights while it feeds, by preventing the fennecs core body temperature from dropping too low. Physiological Physiological adaptions are changes in the animal’s system processes to enable them to adapt to changes in the environment. These changes enable the fennec to adapt to the extreme environment of the North African deserts. Carnivores, just as the fennec, are found in a number of deserts around the world. A major challenge that these organisms face is the replenishment of water. The fennec gains its water requirements solely from having mostly a carnivorous diet. The fennec, by eating alone, can maintain its water balance for over 100 days without having to drink (Vaughn, et al., 2000). This is done by the fennec having very concentrated urine that uses the least amount of water possible to function. This conserves a vast amount of water and coupled with its very low evaporate loss. Therefore it rivals small desert rodents in its water conservation (Vaughn, et al., 2000). This relates to selective predation and an ability to feed on a wide variety of food stuffs, while being abl e to become more economical with its metabolic water. The adaption of having a low basal metabolic rate is crucial to survival in dessert conditions. The fennec is no exception to this; it has one of the lowest BMRs of all Vulpes species of 60.7 percent (Golightly Ohmart, 1983). This means at rest the fox only uses the minimal amount of water needed to survive. This adaption allows a minimalized endogenous heat load which conserves metabolic water. This saving of water becomes critical in the desert due to the low precipitation levels and therefore having the adaptation of a low BMR helps maintain any dietary water acquired and conserves it. Behavioural Behavioural adaptations are changes in the animals conduct help it survive in a certain environment. Previously, little was known about the fennec foxes diet. It was previously thought that they were primarily insectivores and had barely any variety in their diet. However, a new study has shown that they are actually opportunistic feeders with food items being mostly insects, but it also feeds on small mammals and even plant material (Brahmi, et al., 2012). The study also shows that locality and abundance of food can also change the feeding behaviour of the fennec. This adaption is critical to the survival of any dessert animals. The ability to feed on many different food sources opens up many more niches and availability for the animal to survive and feed (Brahmi, et al., 2012). Panting is an adaption that requires short shallow respiration and is solely used in heat dissipation. Panting makes use of evaporative cooling of the mouth, lung and nasal mucosa. This is a very effective way of cooling down without having to sweat. This main advantage over sweating is that in sweating there is salt loss, while in panting there is not (Vaughn, et al., 2000). This is key to the survival of the fennec because of the shortage of food; therefore the fennec cannot regain the salt quicker than the animal uses up. If the fennec sweated this could become a huge problem, so it has overcome this problem by making use of the more efficient panting for heat dissipation (Vaughn, et al., 2000). Fennec fox families live and thrive in burrows; these help counteract the daily effects of high temperature and low humidity of the desert days. They provide shelter from sun exposure and the highest temperatures of the dessert day. A study in tortoises shows that burrows provide a great place to refuge in a desert environment. The study showed that the burrow at 10:00 -12:00 hrs had much higher humidity and lower temperature than the external environment (Bulova, 2002). This lowers the total evaporate water loss which helps the animal, in this case the fennec, conserve metabolic water, which is key to desert survival. Fennecs therefore make use of the much more stable and milder environment inside the burrow. This helps shelter the fennec from extreme conditions and helps conserve water. This is due to the soil temperature maintaining stability no matter what the conditions are outside. The burrow controls the internal environment due to the thermal insulating properties of the soil (Reichman Smith, 1990). Therefore the burrow is cooler during the day and warmer during the freezing desert nights. Conclusion To conclude there are many adaptations the fennec has; may that be morphological, physiological and behavioural. The adaptations are a necessity to survive in such an extreme climate, such as the dessert; with high heat loads during the day, freezing temperatures in the night, food and water sources are scarce. The adaptions that the fennec utilises all boil down to protection from the incredible temperature change in the dessert, by having large ears to dissipate heat and fur that can reflect but also absorb the heat. This gives protection from solar radiation during the day, and insulation during the night. The other main reason for having many complex adaptations is to conserve water. The fennec’s metabolic water level is maintained by having a low BMR which uses less water in metabolic activity at rest, and also the concentrated urine which reduces the loss of water via waste. In my mind the fennec fox is perfectly adapted to cope with the extremes of desert life, by contr olling its water conservation and body temperature. Word count: 1,508 References: Brahmi, K. et al., 2012. First quantitative data on the diet of the fennec fox, Vulpes zerda (Canidae, Carnivora), in Algeria. Folia Zoologica, 61(1), pp. 61-70. Bulova, j., 2002. How temperature, humidity, and burrow selection affect evaporative water loss in desert tortoises. Journal Of Thermal Biology, 27(3), pp. 175-189. Dawson, T. Brown, G., 1970. Comparison Of The Insulative AndReflective Properties Of The Fur of Desert Kangaroos. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Volume 37, pp. 23-28. Ewer, R., 1973. The Carnivores. 1st ed. s.l.:weidenfeld and nicolson. Fox, M., 1975. The Wild Canids Their Systematics, Behavioural Ecology and Evolution. 1st ed. s.l.:Litton Educational Publishing, Inc. Golightly, R. Ohmart, R., 1983. Metabolism and body temperature of two desert canids: cototes and kit foxes. Journal of Mammalogy, 64(4), pp. 624-635. The Nature of Wildworks. 2014. The Nature of Wildworks. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.natureofwildworks.org/species.html#ffox. [Accessed 12 February 2014]. Reichman, O. Smith, S., 1990. Burrows And Burrowing Behavior By Mammals. Current Mammalogy, pp. 197-224. Vaughn, t., Ryan, J. Czaplewski, N., 2000. Mammology. 4th ed. s.l.:Saunders college publishing. Wathen, P., Mitchell, J. Porter, W., 1971. Theoretical and Experimental Studies of Energy Exchange from Jackrabbit Ears and Cylindrically Shaped Appendages. Biophysical Journal, 11(12), pp. 1030-1047. Harvard – Anglia 2008

Outline of Marriage in the Victorian Era Essay -- Victorian Era

Outline of Marriage in the Victorian Era In the Victorian era, marriage was not as romanticized or fairytale-like as depicted in many novels of the time. On the contrary, love actually played a very minor role in the majority of matrimonies that took place. An engagement was entered into as one would approach a business deal, and there were some generally accepted rules and guidelines to follow. The Rules * It was illegal to marry your deceased wife’s sister. You could marry first cousins, but attitudes changed towards the end of the 19th century, and this became frowned upon. * Victorians were encouraged to marry within the same class (remember the views on social mobility!). They could marry up, but to marry down meant marrying beneath yourself (Soames). * A woman entering into the institute of marriage had to be equipped with a dowry. The husband-to-be had to prove that he could support his new bride in the lifestyle she was accustomed to. * An unmarried woman could inherit money and property after she reached the age of 21, but once married, all control would revert to her husband. A woman could not have a will for her own personal possessions; since the control was in her husband’s power, he could distribute her property in any way he likes, even to his illegitimate children (if he has any). * Women married because they had a lack of options; they were not formerly educated, and were only instructed in domestic duties. They needed someone to support them, and were encouraged to marry and have children ("The Rules of Marriage"). The Courtship * Marriage was a carefully contemplated subject for a woman; since she would lose control over any possessions once married, it was not somethin... ...and helped to strengthen the family line, divorce was neither economically or socially practical. It would guarantee the family losing some of its strength and influence by giving up property and wealth. Works Cited â€Å"Marriage and Divorce in Victorian England.† Charlotte's Web: A Hypertext on Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre. . "The Rules of Marriage in the Victorian Era.† . Soames, Enoch. â€Å"Marriage in the Victorian Era.† The Charlock’s Shade. 18 February 2004. Wells, Richard A. â€Å"Manners Culture and Dress of the Best American Society.† King, Richardson, & Co. Publishers. Springfield, MA. 1893. .