Essay about The Father of Democracy Solon, Cleisthenes...

Since the beginning of time, humans have found habits to dominate one another. This type of domination is expressed from mere fighting, to more advanced systems like democracy. Democracy is a system of government by which the whole population is completed through elected officials. This advanced form of government was only beginning in ancient Greece. Between the 5th and 6th century of ancient Greece, Solon changed the world. The Athenian government was known to be established in 460BCE and was ran by tyranny. Despite the insanity, the basic outlines of development of democracy were established by no others than: Solon, Cleisthenes, and Pericles. Solon was the first to greatly influence the government of Athenian society. In the 6th†¦show more content†¦The first of four classes was known as the â€Å"Pentekosiomedimnoi†, this class required the members to produce at least five hundred â€Å"medimnoi† (measures) of grain per year. This group was the uppermost g roup of the system and had to finance for most public services, such as constructing a ship, festival, building etc. The third of the four assemblages was the â€Å"Hippeis†, or the knights. These Hippeis could only afford the expenses of maintaining a horse, and produced a minimum of 300 medimnoi per year. The second to last class of Solon’s reform was the â€Å"Zeugitai†. These middle class like citizens were required to harvest income of two hundred to three hundred menimnoi per year. These citizens also had to provide their own armor for military services in the infantry, in case they were called to war. The final group of this reform was known as â€Å"Thetes†. This group was the weakest of the four classes, only to produce below two hundred medimnoi. Most Thetes could not pay for their own armor and served as light infantry or slaves. Along with his reform, Solon was known to create the â€Å"Council of 400†. This council allowed citizens the right to vote the verdicts of magistrates and partake in the situation of the government. Despite the changes Solon’s reform brought to Athenian democracy, they did not completely reshape democracy, but rather inch closer to evolved version of it. Cleisthenes was a member of the Alcmaeonid family. CleisthenesShow MoreRelatedGreece : The Birthplace Of Democracy1600 Words   |  7 PagesTheorem, Hippocratic Oath, or the Socratic Method. But perhaps the greatest gift a man could receive from his government was democracy. Unlike other empires where a citizen’s opinion was considered inferior to the king’s, Greek leaders cared about their people’s opinion, especially the leaders of Athens. Athens is considered to be the birthplace of democracy. Democracy comes from the ancient Greek word demokratia which means â€Å"power from the people.† But what many modern day civilians do not knowRead MoreEssay on History Quiz - Western Civilization to Middle Ages1580 Words   |  7 PagesIt convinced the Greeks of their cultural superiority over barbarians. | | It ended Persian hopes of successfully invading Greece. | | It established the superiority of the hoplite and phalanx. | | It promoted the democratic reforms of Cleisthenes. | Question 4 of 60 Members of Darius Is elite guard were known as the immortals because their numbers always remained at 10,000 | True | | False | Question 5 of 60 After Darius I died, his son _____ took over. | Leonidas | Read MoreThe History of the Greeks: Hellenic and Hellenistic6253 Words   |  26 Pagesfrustrated by the new laws and were on the verge of civil war when Solon was elected chief executive in 594 B.C. Solon was a traveler and a poet with a reputation for wisdom. Both the aristocrats and citizens of Athens realized that the threat of civil war was imminent. In an effort to avert war, the Athenians handed over power of government to Solon. Solon set out to reform the laws of Draco in order to avoid an uprising. Solon believed that the aristocrats greed was the reason that Athens was

Womens Liberation in the 1920s Essay example - 1652 Words

America is the land of opportunity. It is a place of rebirth, hope, and freedom. However, it was not always like that for women. Many times in history women were oppressed, belittled, and deprived of the opportunity to learn and work in their desired profession. Instead, their life was confined to the home and family. While this was a noble role, many females felt that they were being restricted and therefore desired more independence. In America, women started to break the mold in 1848 and continued to push for social, political, educational, and career freedom. By the 1920s, women had experienced significant â€Å"liberation†, as they were then allowed to vote, hold public office, gain a higher education, obtain new jobs, drastically change†¦show more content†¦Accordingly, frontier women gained the right to vote and over time other states granted females suffrage, in full or in part. Women became influential in elections and had an effect on who was elected into C ongress. These members were then more obligated to vote for a women’s suffrage amendment to the Constitution. Finally, in 1920 the 19th Amendment was passed in part due to these members of Congress and because women had played a major role in supporting the country during World War I. The amendment stated that nobody could be denied the right to vote based on their gender. This was a great stepping stone for females that allowed them to participate in the world of politics and decide who their leaders were. No longer was the woman a voiceless bystander. Not only were women voting for their nation’s officials, they were some of the ones being elected. Starting in as early as 1866, women had been running for various public offices and in some rare cases they won the election. For example, Susanna Salter was elected mayor of Argonia, Kansas in 1887; Martha Hughes Cannon was elected to the Utah State Senate in 1896; and Jeannette Rankin entered the United States House of R epresentatives in 1917. By the 1920s, women had become more involved in government and were being elected in greater numbers. They had the opportunity and power to organize laws and bills that they hadShow MoreRelated Womens Liberation in the 1920s: Myth or Reality? Essay3466 Words   |  14 PagesWomens Liberation in the 1920s: Myth or Reality? The decade following World War I proved to be the most explosive decade of the century. America emerged as a world power, the 19th amendment was ratified, and the expansion of capitalism welcomed the emergence of consumerism. The consumer era was established, which generated new spending opportunities for most Americans in the 1920’s. From the latest fashions to the world of politics, ideologies collided to construct a society based on contradictingRead MoreWomens Liberation Movement Essay1219 Words   |  5 PagesWomens Liberation Movement Betty Friedan wrote that the only way for a woman, as for a man, to find herself, to know herself as a person, is by creative work of her own. The message here is that women need more than just a husband, children, and a home to feel fulfilled; women need independence and creative outlets, unrestrained by the pressures of society. Throughout much of history, women have struggled with the limited roles society imposed on them. The belief that women were intellectuallyRead MoreEssay on Feminine Beauty921 Words   |  4 Pagesbetween the womens movement, or lack there of, and societys feelings about woman and their aesthetic appearance. A womans beauty during the 1910s and early 1920s was not an aspect of ones life to be contemplated heavily. Woman pre 19th amendment were more concerned with gaining recognition of their equality then how they looked. Woman felt beauty came from with in and was not a product one could buy. Attractiveness was being strong and powerful: In the late 1910s and early 1920s femaleRead MoreJazz Music, Freedom and Women1334 Words   |  5 Pagesnatural swing of jazz had made it ideal for these dances as it has uneven rhythm. This new music was then recognised as a symbol of rebellion and flock to speakeasies, cabarets and dance halls in order for the young generation to enjoy it. In 1920s, Jazz musicians began to move especially in Chicago in North. Due to The Great Migration during World War I and World War II, jazz was highly on demand. Sonny Rollins, a famous jazz saxophonist later illustrates that: â€Å"Jazz was not a music; it wasRead More1920s Fashion - Research Paper1069 Words   |  5 PagesThe 1920’s fashion was a period of liberation, change, and even more importantly a movement towards the modern era. Fashion in the 1920’s varied throughout the decade but one could see the noticeable change from the previous fashion statements and eras. At the start of the decade, women began emancipating themselves from the constricting fashions by wearing more comfortable apparel. As women gained more rights and World War I forced them to become more independent, flappers came to be, mass-producedRead MoreThis essay, 1920s vs 1960s, writen in AABB format, deals with the comparison of; general statistics, fashion styles of both men women, music, controversial issues.1502 Words   |  7 Pages1920s vs. 1960s Over the past century, people living in the United States have experienced many changes. As the times change, so do the people. In the 1920s, people acted differently then compared to the people in the 1960s. Yet, they both have one thing in common; they shaped our history. In the 1920s, about 106,521,537 people inhabited the United States. It was a rough period in our history, with about 2,132,000 people unemployed and murder, swindles, and racketeering as the most popularRead MoreDid Flappers Have a Positive Effect on Women’s Rights in America in the 1920s?948 Words   |  4 PagesDId flappers have a positive effect on women’s rights in America in the 1920s? Throughout the ages women have been stricken with often male-made oppression in many forms on the long, difficult road to their eventual initiation into equal rights. Some aspects of women’s rights today were obtained by questionable means in the past. One such act of liberation by questionable means was the introduction of a class of women in the 1920s known as flappers. 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This documentary detailed many examples of these phenomena occurring in our society. A great example of the negative representation of women in the media is the use of women’s bodies in advertisementsRead MoreWomen s Representation Of Women Essay1348 Words   |  6 Pageswith regard to women’s representation in the media. The document argues that the media portrays women as either hyper sexualized, too conservative, too submissive, or too dominant and so on. The main idea is that TV, advertisements, magazines, and music too often portray women in a negative, male biased light. This documentary detailed many examples of these phenomena occurring in our society. A great example of the negative representation of women in the media is the use of women’s bodies in advertisements

The prevalence of domestic violence in our societies. Free Essays

ABSTRACT In the last two decades, there has been growing recognition of the prevalence of domestic violence in our societies. Domestic violence has continued to be a global epidemic that kills and tortures physically, psychologically, sexually and economically. It is one of the most pervasive human rights violations, denying women and children equality, security, dignity and their right to enjoy fundamental freedoms. We will write a custom essay sample on The prevalence of domestic violence in our societies. or any similar topic only for you Order Now The prevalence of domestic violence is higher in Kenya than in the UK because there is no law that deals with the issues of domestic violence. In light of the growing contention of domestic violence, this dissertation looks at the issues of domestic violence and its effects on children in both the United Kingdom (UK) and Kenya. More specifically, the research seeks to: highlight the common definition of domestic violence, identify factors that contribute to domestic violence, analyze the impact of domestic violence on children, and lastly, look at ways of combating domestic violence in both countries. This review has critiqued and discussed previous studies, articles and other relevant literature. Research articles were reviewed giving an overview of what domestic violence is. A number of factors that contribute to the effects of witnessing violence by children such as behavioural, emotional, cognitive and physical functioning problems have been explored. The two countries chosen represent the same detrimental effects of domestic violence on children. Lastly, discussions focussing on the methods utilized in dealing with domestic violence in Kenya and the UK were outlined. Focus has been made to the positive steps taken to combat this problem as well as government and non-government actions in fighting domestic violence. Overall, this research will enable you to better understand social conditions and social issues in a broader sense, giving you a view of what various problems mean to different people and how these perspectives impact on society’s response. It will represent a comprehensive and engaging approach for the study of international social conditions and proble ms. The theoretical ideas such as the feminist approach, attachment theory, systems theory applied will shed some light on how to further understand the issues of domestic violence. Concerns about methodology are also raised. The reason for carrying out this research is because domestic violence has become a feature of most of the cases that I encounter as a social work student on placement. Born and bred in Kenya where domestic violence is at an increase, this research will with the worst outcomes for children. Also, professionals in both countries were found to pay less attention to the fact that children were witnessing and living with high levels of violence. Therefore, this dissertation aims at creating awareness on the impact of domestic violence on children and its need for interventions. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1:1 Background and Context Domestic violence is an internationally recognized problem, yet it remains the most invisible crimes of our times. Women and children face terror in the place where they should be safest- within their families. Many of them are terrified of their homes because it is where they experience violence from those who they trust and are close to them. Domestic violence occurs in all communities regardless of social class, age, race, ethnic, disability, sexuality, and lifestyle. Summers Hoffman (2002) describes the issues of domestic violence as closely linked to the socialization process, personal choices, crime justice, safety, health care and ethics. They state that, it is rarely a one time event, since abuse tends to have a high rate of recurrence. There are key pieces of legislation, both criminal and civil, which have a bearing on children who experience domestic violence. These are the Children Act 1989, Family Law Act 1996, Protection from Harassment Act 1997 and Housing Act 1996 (H ester et al, 2000). There is a focus on the relevant aspects of the legislation and discussion regarding the implications for practice.The global dimensions of domestic violence are shocking as highlighted by studies on its incidences and prevalence. No society is free from such violence and the only difference is in the patters and trends that are present in countries which will be discussed later in this review (www.unicef-icdc.org). The first chapter will look at the definition of domestic violence within the UK and Kenya. Throughout history, assumptions have been made causing society to turn its back on domestic violence. It was assumed that domestic violence is a minor, private/family matter that no one should interfere with (Hanmer, 2000). Many people still believe that battering is rare and to a lesser extent therefore, do not approve of outside interference. Others feel men are naturally aggressive, and women naturally passive, so abuse is expected due to ‘human nature’. Therefore, they view battering as a problem caused by stress or poverty, or subject to the ‘lower classes’ (Berry, 2000). It is only recent that society has realised the unspeakable horror of domestic violence. As the shocking numbers and stories are made public knowledge, attitudes are changing. People are now aware of the increasing nature of domestic violence, its devastating effect on women, men, children and families, and the tragic consequences of turning away (Hanmer, 2000). In the UK, domestic vi olence has become a main concern for many local authorities and police divisions while in Kenya, it is still regarded as a family affair that requires no intrusion. The dynamics of this violence as well as the contributing factors are slowly becoming evident. Each country differs in its perceptions as to what contributes to its domestic violence problems. In the UK, factors such as social exclusion, poverty, gender inequality, having a criminal background, and having experienced abuse as a child are some of the factors that contribute to domestic violence. The families are classified as patriarchal where male dominate and women are subordinates (Turshen, 2000). In Kenya, domestic violence must be understood as a cultural and historical phenomenon. Its traditional lifestyle determines a specific place for women and children- their roles and duties. The father is the one in charge of the homestead which means practically, he owns everything or rather, he is the custodian of the fami ly property including his wives and children (Njenga, 2007). However, factors such as gender inequality and poverty that contribute to domestic violence in the UK are similar to those in Kenya. The second chapter will expand more on that. The victims of domestic violence suffer physically, emotionally and psychologically. They are unable to make their own decisions, air their own views or protect themselves and their children for fear of further repercussions. They are deprived of their human rights and have to constantly live with the threat of violence (UNICEF, 2000). Several studies have shown that children who witness domestic violence are at higher risks of becoming victims or perpetrators of domestic as adults. An increasing variety of research has highlighted that children are likely to be at risk of physical, sexual or emotional abuse in the context of domestic violence (Hester et al, 2000). The impact of domestic violence on children has been found to be similar in both the UK and Kenya. This review focuses on these children-the forgotten victims of violence in the home. The third chapter will draw attention to the impact of domestic violence on children. The challenge for the future is to bring ourselves to the point where the family is characterized by love and nurturing thoughtfulness, as opposed to the horrific psychological abuse, battering, and killing that are a tragic part of domestic violence. A multifaceted and integrated approach that embraces human rights is required to effectively eliminate domestic violence. Perhaps, through international collaboration, we can share insights and meaningful approaches to prevention and controls thereby helping our families become the source of health citizens of tomorrow. (Summers Hoffman, 2002). By counterposing Kenya and the UK, this review offers many similarities between the violence encountered by women and children in both countries and its view on male dominance and control. Nonetheless, there are a few differences about the two settings that may prove useful to examine and be productive of insights into the nature of domestic violence. As a result, this study sought to establish the effects of domestic violence on children in both Kenya and the UK with the hope of it being an eye opener to the reality of the situation. Methodology A literature review is an objective summary and critical analysis of the relevant available research or unresearched literature on a particular topic (Hart, 2001). The sources of data for this research project are secondary sources taken from reliable sources such as academic journals, books, reports of which references can be found on the reference list. The methods chosen for these review were intended to minimise the risk of bias in the identification and selection of relevant and suitable literature (www.health.wa.gov.au). This included conducting a thorough and comprehensive search involving electronic databases such as ASSIA†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Academic one file and the Sage Publication Journals that have been used to identify published articles, books and specialist journals. Four research articles on the application of domestic violence, gender-based violence, effects of domestic violence on children were searched and identified. Searches were narrowed to the year 2000 to 2011 to ensure only the most up to date research was found. The studies that were used in this review were chosen because they were relevant and the level of evidence contained in them was high. The use of qualitative and quantitative research to collect data has been analysed to produce findings. Qualitative research methods rely less on the mathematics and statistics of the results than quantitative methods and can be used to search for meanings within answers. Researchers conducting qualitative research do not aim to develop other people’s theories but attempts to collect enough information about a particular topic in order to come up with new ideas and theories; an inductive approach to research (Glasser Strauss, 1967). Quantitative data collection finds ‘hard’ data (data that can be measured and eventually turned into number format) and analyses it in statistical terms in order to find conclusions. These conclusions are then used to draw up ideas and theories. In quantitative research, researchers generally starts off knowing a little about the topic in question and explore it further through the research itself. This is called the deductive approach. The important thing in quantitative research is that the researcher must be objective and cannot be biased otherwise the results will be inaccurate. Limitations to Research The four studies used in this literature review have used qualitative data method to gather evidence for their research, although one study used both qualitative and quantitative data collection. Qualitative data is perhaps easier to apply in social care research, however it becomes more difficult to analyse than quantitative as results must be ‘grouped’ or ordered into categories of common thoughts/opinions/findings leaving room for misinterpretation or slightly exaggeration of individual results. This is particularly an issue when using open-ended questions. However, multiple choice questions limit the range of answers that can be given and may not be accurate to what the participant wants to convey. With most of the literature from Kenya, there has been difficulty in comparing prevalence data on violence because different methods have been used to obtain them. The two challenges in obtaining accurate prevalence data are; how to define â€Å"abuse† and how to determine the study population. A further complication is that surveys measure the number of survivors willing to disclose abuse rather than actual numbers abused. This can bias prevalence data often prone to under reporting. In the UK, figures derived from agencies such as the police and women’s refuges are necessarily selective and encompass only a small proportion of victims. It is well documented that police figures suffer from the problem of the ‘hidden figure of crime-that is the non-reporting of crime to the police by the public and the failure of the police to record crime that is reported. Agency figures represent merely the ‘tip of the iceberg’ and in some cases, for instance those derived from women’s refuges, point more to the limited availability of such resources rather than overall extent of the problem (Hanmer, 2000). Collecting reliable data on this hidden issue is a challenge. There is limited data available on the prevalence of domestic violence in both Kenya and the UK and less information on the numbers of children who may be exposed to such violence. Ethical considerations The main issue surrounding any piece of research is the ethical dilemma it causes. When carrying out research, the researcher must balance the value of the research with the amount of intrusion on the participants. Most research carried out in Kenya established that some children and adolescents found questions about home life difficult to answer, especially if the individual has been threatened by a family member from â€Å"talking to strangers† about what happens within the family (Chebogut Ngeno, 2010). Most studies carried out in the UK did not endeavour to ask children about specific incidences of abuse they had witnessed or experienced because it would be distressing for the child to concentrate on the numerous accounts of violence. Gaps in Research Comarck (2000) suggests that literature review may identify gaps in the previous literature that the researcher can address and also provide the reader with knowledge of the field being researched. In order to critically appraise the reviews, CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 What is domestic violence? In researching domestic violence, the first issue that needs to be confronted is that of definition. It is recognised that there is lack of consistency between researchers, policy makers, members of the public and so on, over the relationships and types of behaviour that should be included under the definition of domestic violence and considerable debate as to whether the term should be adopted at all (Kashani Allan, 1998). In the UK, according to the Home office (2005), domestic violence more specifically refers to the abuse by one person to another in an intimate relationship. These relationships can involve marriage partners living together, dating relationships, and partners living together. The abuse may take the form of physical violence, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, psychological abuse, economic abuse, incest and ultimately death (Berry, 2000; Chalk King, 1998). This definition bares the same features as the definition of domestic violence in Kenya. However, the term famil y violence and domestic violence in Kenya, is used interchangeably in different literatures. In the past, the cases for abused women and children were treated as separate issues with services and policies being delivered differently. In most studies carried in the UK on domestic violence in heterosexual relationships, it has been found that the vast majority of cases involve violence from men to women (Dobash Dobash, 1992; Mooney, 1994; British Crime Survey, 1996). In support of this is the NCH Action for Children study on domestic violence and children which suggests that 90-97% of domestic violence is from men to women (Abrahams 1994). However, this does not deny the fact that women can be violent towards men or the fact that women sometimes abuse. Even though there are occasional reports of male victims of domestic violence, the balance is tilted heavily against females. Whichever ways we look at it, children are the ones affected directly and indirectly by the problem. Domestic violence has been an important feature in some instances of child death-e.g. Maria Colwell and Kimberly Carlile. In many cases where children have been killed, the significance of violence to the mothers, as an indicator of potential risk to the children, has often not been understood nor acknowledged by child care professionals. It should be an eye-opener that children, who witness the abuse of their mother, may be directly abused themselves. In a review of studies, Hughes (1992) found correlations of 40-60 per cent between child abuse and domestic violence. Children who witness violence between adults in their homes are only the most recent victims to become visible. These children have been called the â€Å"silent,† the â€Å"forgotten,† and â€Å"unintended† victims of adult-to-adult domestic violence (Elbow, 1982; Groves et al., 1993; Rosenbaum O’Leary, 1981). Most children do not witness murders of a parent. Beatings that are fatal but are nonetheless brutal are the types of events that we most commonly think of when children witness adult domestic violence. Therefore, it is apparent that domestic violence is an important indicator of risk of harm to children. Also, an increasing variety of research has highlighted that children are likely to be at risk of physical, sexual or psychological/emotional abuse in the context of domestic violence. 1) Physical abuse: Physical abuse refers to any behaviour that involves the intentional use of force against the body of another person that risks physical injury, harm or pain (Dutton, 1992). Up to 70% of male abusers also physically abuse their children (90% when there are four or more children in the household). Fortunately, some of these children, despite their traumatic childhood experience, do not become abusers later in life. Kaufman and Zigler (1987) suggest that the rate of intergenerational transmission of violence toward children is 30%. Neverthereless, the witnessing or experiencing of violence by children in the household is the greatest risk factor for predicting involvement in domestic violence. For some women the physical effects of the domestic violence can have a detrimental impact on their parenting and relationships with their children. Not only is their parenting capacity likely to be affected, but also there is a heightened probability that her children may be abused (Hester et al , 2000). The Farmer and Owen (1995) study, he found that in three of five cases where children had suffered physical abuse, neglect or emotional abuse, their mothers were also subject to violence from their male partners. 2) Sexual abuse: Sexual abuse is defined as any unwanted sexual intimacy forced on one individual by another. Children not only suffer as a result of witnessing this violence, but they often become victims themselves. For example, up to a third of men who batter their female partner also sexually abuse their children. A recent study in Kenya by Maternowska et. al (2009) showed that pressure starts at an early age, with 29% of boys aged 13 years and below reporting one or more episodes of sexual harassment. UNICEF reported that in Kenya the level of violence against children has reached very high levels, in particular sexual violence. However, there exists a lack of consistency in study methods, study designs, and analyses of results in sexual violence studies that makes comparison across specific geographical contexts different. Kenya has 42 communities with varied understandings of sexual abuse that make research problematic (Kilonzo, 2008). 3) Psychological and emotional abuse Psychological/emotional abuse includes behaviour that is intended to intimidate and persecute, and takes the form of threats of abandonment or abuse, confinement at home, verbal aggression and constant humiliation (Chebogut Ngeno, 2010). Because psychological violence is harder to capture in quantitive studies, a full picture of the deeper and more insidious levels of violence defies quantification. Victim survivors report that ongoing psychological violence-emotional torture and living under terror-is often more unbearable that the physical brutality, with mental stress leading to a high incidence of suicide and suicide attempts. Children respond to violence in different ways and understanding the immediate, medium and long term psychological effects of violence is essential (UNICEF, 2000). There has been limited research on the mental health outcomes of sexual violence for survivors and the consequences for their partners and families in Kenya. There is limited knowledge on the me ntal health and social needs and requirements of survivors, factors that impact on recovery and the long-term outcomes. This means that these needs are unmet for survivors and that the justice system does not have the capacity or mechanisms to utilize psycho-social consequences to impact on justice outcomes (Maternowska, 2009). 2.2 When does it begin? Our knowledge about domestic violence comes from the accounts of survivors and to a lesser extent from the accounts of perpetrators of domestic violence and witnesses (Dobash et al. 2000). Many people have suggested that domestic violence-at least to the degree it is observed today, is a recent phenomenon. Yet violence between intimates has long been a part of family life. Dutton (2006) refers to domestic violence as â€Å"hidden crime† because for too long, it has been a private problem and must be made a public issue. Although domestic violence can begin at any time during a relationship, most studies show that violence tends to start early on- particularly once the relationship has become ‘formalised’ through the couple living together or through marriage (Hester Radford, 1992; Kelly, 1988). In Kenya, domestic violence is experienced mostly by people living in the capital city though the poorer areas have greater representation. It was further noted that somet imes abuse starts in the first year of marriage, but it takes five years for most of the women to visit the shelter for help. The police, church, community elders as well as the local administration were the choice of place for the reports of the violence (Njenga, 2007). It has also been noted that many women experience violence from their husbands or male-partners at the time of pregnancy, or when the children are small. From these accounts, the perception of the perpetrator and that of the woman he has abused often differ. Perpetrators may not see their behaviour as abusive or controlling as the person on the receiving end. They are likely to deny and cover up their abusive behaviour and therefore, appearing as quite different people in public than at home. As Hester et al (2007) mentions, many women have described their violent partners as appearing very ‘charming’ at work, to the police, in court and so on, but generally aggressive at home. It is easy to assume that once a domestic violence perpetrator is no longer living with his wife or partner, then the violence will stop. However, that is unlikely to be the case. It has to be recognised that violent male partners are likely to continue to abuse and harass their ex-partners and wi ll use any situation where both are present or in contact with each other (e.g. via contact arrangements for the children) to do so (Radford Hester, 2006). 2.3 Data on domestic violence Experts are divided over statistics that show domestic violence is on the rise. Domestic violence in the UK is very common. Research shows that it can affect one in four women in their lifetimes and it accounts for between 16% and one quarter of all recorded violent crime. It is estimated that 3 million children experience domestic violence in their homes each year (Walby Allen 2004). The survey explores non-sexual domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking and includes aspects of domestic violence that are frequently hidden, such as financial and emotional abuse, isolation, threats and intimidation. Regardless of the way these estimates of children’s exposure are derived, it is likely that this exposure occurs more than once and may be present over the course of a child’s development. According to the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey, 39% of the women surveyed said they were abused by a husband or partner. But a 2008 report by the Federation of Women Lawyers of Kenya (FIDA), says almost 75% of women they surveyed reported being beaten. This has contributed to the drastic increase of numbers affected from about 299 in 2006, then to 412 in 2007, then in 2008, it went to another 400 and over (Chebugot Ngeno, 2010). Domestic legislation with respect to children and protection of their rights The absence of legislation on domestic violence has complicated matters in Kenya still further. There is no legal framework to address this issue. The current practice is to criminalise the offence under the penal code as assault/battery, but this usually does not take into account violence that is perpetrated in the home (FIDA, 2002). The legal services constantly control their inability to help in the face of an inadequate law and untrained, unsympathetic law enforcement agents. Law enforcement normally uses the fact that domestic violence is not specifically criminalized as an excuse for not intervening. The situation is further complicated by Kenya’s failure to translate into domestic law the international conventions that the government has ratified, such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (Turshen, 2000). How then is it possible to win the war against domestic violence, against women and childrenDomestic violence is still no t treated with the same gravity as other cases when they are reported. Often the victim reporting the case is asked what she did to provoke the violence and is encouraged to resolve the issue at home (OMCT, 2008). The adoption of the Domestic violence (Family Protection) Bill has been pending since 2002. This Bill attempts to deal comprehensively with all aspects (physical. Psychological and sexual) of violence within domestic settings and would be the only statute in Kenya that recognises domestic violence as a crime. The Bill also provides counselling and psychological treatment for the victims of domestic violence and provides safe houses for victims who are deemed unsafe to remain in the violent situations. It will enable provisions for protection orders against perpetrators including denying them access to the matrimonial homes, provides for a ‘friend’ to make an application for protection for protection orders on behalf of another and provides rehabilitation and setting up fund for domestic violence victims. Once the Bill is passed, it will also help protect children from violence at home (OMCT, 2008).A draft constitution presented to the public last year addressed a number of issues that the domestic violence bill would have dealt with however, the draft was rejected during a referendum (Maternowska et al, 2009). The enactment of legislation aimed at promoting and protecting the rights of the child are the Children’s Act of 2001 (Cap 586 of the laws of Kenya) and the creation of the National Council for Children’s Services (Achilihu, 2010). The Act establishes statutory structures to facilitate the administration and safeguards of children’s rights. Actual on-the-ground translation of policy into practice has been challenging. There are fewer gains in the legal and social services. According to most national NGO’S, the Children Act has resulted in a great improvement in the promotion and protection of the children’s rights. However, there are several gaps which should be addressed by the government to ensure that every child in Kenya enjoys full legal protection of his/her rights. In this regard, the Kenya Law Reform Commission (KLRC) whose mandate is to review laws in the country commenced a review of the Children Act in 2006. However, to date the exercise is yet to be completed. Kenya is one of the African countries in the world where the rights of the child are still a mirage. The sad reality for many Kenyan children is that violation of their rights is not seen as a serious problem resulting in severe consequences for children even beyond their childhood (OMCT, 2008). The turning point in the UK came when police policy started regarding domestic assault as a crime like any other crime and men as responsible for their own abusive behaviour (Adams et al. 2002). The Children Act 1989 redefined child care law and introduced new measures for the working with children and families in both public and private family law. It was the first child care legislation to take into account the child’s religious, ethnic and cultural background. It adopted a new approach to working with children, underpinned by the principle that the child’s welfare is paramount. The children Act 1989 does not fully acknowledge the context of domestic violence in which many children live. Despite the fact that the Act is accompanied by ten volumes of guidance, there is none on the issue of domestic violence, nor any recognition that domestic violence is a key factor in the breakup of many relationships. Until very recently, the concept of risk of violence to one parent figure from the other parent figure (or from another family member), and the possible impact of this on the first parent’s ability to protect and care for children, was not identified as a factor requiring consideration. In the light of better understanding, since the Act’s implementation, an amendment to include the risk of domestic violence within the welfare checklist or elsewhere might now be timely (Hester et al, 2000). The need to minimise the risk of violence during family proceedings was highlighted during the passage of the Family Law Act 1996, and was recognised as one of the key principles of parts 2 and 3 of the Act (divorce, legal aid and mediation). The recognition by Parliament that this principle was needed was due, in part, to greater awareness following the Home Affairs Select Commitee Inquiry into Domestic Violence in 1992, and to subsequent publicity about the extent and nature of domestic violence. This was accompanied by growing concerns about the unfortunate effects of its absence within the Children Act 1989 itself, particularly in relation to section 8 orders (private arrangements for children after relationship breakdown). CHAPTER 3 FACTORS THAT PERPETUATE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Before analysing the impact of domestic violence on children, let us turn to a systematic consideration of the factors that contribute to domestic violence in Kenya and the UK. As we review both countries, we hear references to social stereotypes, tolerance of violence, inherent aggressive tendencies of men, provocation by partners and the cultural bias regarding domestic violence as a minor or private matter that others are helpless to do anything about. Despite our knowledge about contributing factors in the UK and Kenya, the fact remains that the problem of domestic violence is very complex. Indeed, a definitive explanation of its cause still eludes us. It is sad commentary that violence-whether on the part of teens or adults in the home- reflects the social, economic, moral, and ethical problems in the larger society. (Summers Hoffman, 2002). Cultural- Expectations of roles within relationships: One must take into account the vast cross-cultural differences that exist when defining domestic violence. By examining comparative data from a diverse group of cultures, perhaps cultural factors and social structures can be defined to help us gain a better understanding of factors that contribute to domestic violence. Throughout this review, it is evident that culture has an influence on domestic violence in different countries. Each country’s particular culture reflects societal norms that affect the laws of the land, its social policy and ultimately the attitudes and behaviour of its people (Summers Hoffman). In the UK, where violence is viewed in the context of beliefs about women’s and men’s roles and status within the family, a complex picture emerges of the relationships between poverty, frustrated masculine identities, and violence in intimate relationships. Various studies have noted that a typical effect of macro-social changes on poor urban households is men’s loss of the position of sole breadwinner. This may undermine their status and their authority within the household and outside it. This may in turn lead to men using violence to try to impose their authority on the family. Many writers believe that men’s violence against women is facilitated by men’s domination and that any reduction in this violence will occur only when gender inequality is reduced and when human social bonds are more caring (Summers Hoffman, 2002). In Kenya, domestic violence is deeply engrained in the beliefs about gender roles and marriage which have encouraged the practice. In a patriarchal society, domestic violence is actually recognized as one way of disciplining one’s wife. In fact, even the society socializes you as a woman to anticipate this discipline (Chebogut Ngeno, 2010). As almost every article about domestic violence in Kenya points out, women are still formally regarded as akin to property in most customary law traditions. Bride price- in many places, a certain number of cows-is paid by a man’s family to the woman’s family upon her marriage, for example. This not only makes it appear that she has been ‘bought’ by the man and has thus become his property, to do with as he likes, but also makes it more difficult for women to return to their families of origin to escape domestic violence since their families may be either unable to return the bride price. In short, marriage is sti ll a property transaction in traditional communities in Kenya. Moreover, it is a relationship not just between the individuals involved but between the two families (Bowman, 2003). As regards women, the persistence of certain cultural norms, traditions and stereotypes, as well as discrimination regarding their role in society, perpetuates violence against women and children in Kenya. As a result, it has denied women and children an independent legal and social status. In this respect, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against women (CEDAW). expressed concern that the Kenyan government has not taken systematic action to modify or eliminate stereotypes and negative cultural values and practices (Trochu-Grasso Varesano, 2009). Economic-women’s economic dependence on men The position of women in society has allowed domestic violence to prevail, as women have been economically dependent on men throughout time. Childbirth and child rearing have enabled men to control women, keeping them subordinate and dependent. As Summers Hoffman (2002) states, this material dependency forces women to stay in violent relationships not because they enjoy pain, or are pathologically disturbed, but because they have very little choice. They often do not wish to uproot or upset their children, and they conceal the evidence for the children’s sake. As a result, the parent-child relationship is deeply affected when a mother must cope with the physical and mental health aspects of having been battered (Wolfe, et al 1985). In addition, parents who realise they may not be able to protect their children from violence are likely to feel anxious, frustrated, and helpless. Such parents who are constantly fearful, may well have difficulty being emotionally available and re sponsive to their children (Osofsky Fenichel, 1994: Augustyn, et al 1995). A mother subjected to domestic violence may become preoccupied with safety and survival that she cannot be mindful of her child’s needs. She may become depressed or numb to the violence around her, so that she is unable to be empathetic toward her child. Others may become overprotective or, if extremely traumatized themselves, they may expect their children to protect them. Unfortunately, children raised by such parents may fail to develop the sense of basic trust and security that is the foundation of healthy emotional development which will be discussed in the next chapter (Osofsky, 1995). In Kenya, confilcts over decisions about money and food are a source of violence within poor households (Oudenhoven Wazir, 2006). In contexts where violence against women is permitted or condoned, it is always exacerbated as a result of unstable working conditions, unemployment, financial insecurity and the resulting difficulty of providing household necessities. Conflict intensifies in situations of acute poverty. The UN has recognised that conditions of underdevelopment, poverty, and poor housing produce stress that result in high levels of domestic violence (Connors, 1999). Violence is unacceptable, whether it is perpetrated in pursuit of wealth, on sporting field, in the schoolyard, or inside the family (Morris, 2008). According to Marxist analysis, deteriorating economic conditions and decreased welfare support are responsible for undermining the family. However, evidence relating to family violence with economic factors is complicated (Miles Stephenson, 2000). A study by Fuchs and Reglis (1992), suggests that when economic growth has slowed down, government expenditure on family welfare has risen, thereby mitigating to a degree at least, the economic impact on families. What is clear is that income generation cannot in itself be assumed to reduce violence. Not all men who are poor are violent and not all violent men are poor. Therefore, more research is needed to find out why increased economic hardship may lead in some instances, to great co-operation between household members and in others, to greater conflict and violence. CHAPTER 4 THE IMPACT OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE This section summarizes some of the similarities of the impact of domestic violence on children in the UK and Kenya. When talking about the impact of domestic violence on children, we are considering the effects on children living in a home where spousal abuse is occurring. Domestic violence within families continues over long periods, and its effects are likely to increase with severity and duration and can be devastating to children (Walby Allen, 2004). There is a growing body of literature that has examined both the short and long term problems associated with children’s witnessing of domestic violence. Studies reveal that children who have lived in the context of domestic violence may have more ‘adjustment difficulties’ than children from non-violent homes. It has to be recognised that there is no uniform response to living with domestic violence. Children’s responses vary enormously with some children being affected far more than others, and children within the same family can be affected differently. It is, therefore, important to find out exactly what each child has experienced in order to gain some understanding of what the possible impact of these experience might be, rather than to think in terms of a simple checklist of indicators. Even so, it can be hard to discern the specific impact of living with domestic violence on children, especially as some of the resulting behaviours also occur in children experiencing other forms of abuse or neglect (Hester, 2000). Each child and each child’s experiences and reactions are unique. Review studies in both the UK and Kenya, report a series of childhood problems statistically associated with a child’s witnessing of domestic violence. These problems can be grouped into three main categories examining effects of recent witnessing. 1) Cognitive functioning and attitudes. 2) Behavioural and emotional functioning. 3) Physical functioning and a fourth category that examines long-term effects. Each of these four categories are reviewed in more detail below. Cognitive functioning and attitudes: A study by Westra and Martin (19991), have measured the association between cognitive development problems and witnessing domestic violence. Prolonged and/or regular exposure to domestic violence can have a serious impact on a children’s development and emotional well-being, despite the best efforts of the non-abusing parent to protect the child(ren). This can include seeing or hearing the ill-treatment of others. Children experiencing domestic violence are seen as children in need and a referral to Children’s Social Care must be considered (Jaffe et al, 1990). Emotional and physical problems Children who witness violence at home display emotional and behavioural disturbances as diverse as withdrawal, low self -esteem, sleep disorders (insomnia, nightmares, bedwetting), self blame and aggression against peer, family members and property (Peled at al, 1995). Many develop physical symptoms including frequent colds, headaches, or upset stomachs. In addition, a child may perform less well at school and become extremely protective or dependent of their mothers and worry about their own safety second or not at all (Bradley, 1994). The parent-child relationship roles are reversed as children assume the physical and emotional care of their parent and younger siblings. All aspects of children’s lives are vulnerable. Their health and development may be negatively affected as parent’s capacity to meet basic needs is impaired. This is frequently exacerbated as domestic violence impact on family functioning, housing, income, and social intergration. Parents may experience difficulty in controlling their emotions and severe mood swings can frighten children and leave them feeling uncertain, anxious and over vigilant (Cleaver et al, 2008). Children from homes with domestic violence, typically suffer guilt, feeling that something is wrong with them or that they are responsible for the violence. They also struggle with conflicting emotions and are often very confused about how they could love and hate a person at the same time (ref). These feelings of helplessness and confusion often lead children to attempt a copying strategy of denying that the violence is occurring. These children may be able to express their feelings only through play, art and writing. School-aged children are likely to understand more about the intentions behind an act of violence. School-aged children who witness domestic violence often show a greater frequency of externalizing (aggressive, delinquent) and internalizing (withdrawn, anxious) behaviour problems in comparison to children from nonviolent families (Ref). Another aspect of the effects on children is their own use of violence. Social learning theory would suggest that Children who witness violence may also learn to use it Considerable evidence indicates that children who are exposed to domestic violence, are at much higher risk of becoming perpetrators and victims of violence (Bell, 1995). Imitation and modelling appear to play significant roles in this process. Whenever a child’s behaviour raises anxiety of any kind, or where there are child protection concerns, it is important to bear in mind the possibility that the issue of domestic violence may be an important (and key) aspect of the context for the child. This may be particularly so for children who are presenting with emotional or behavioural difficulties (Hester et al, 2000). Infants and Toddlers Domestic violence episodes can begin or escalate during pregnancy. Domestic violence can pose a threat to an unborn child(ren), because assaults on pregnant women frequently involve punches or kicks directed to the abdomen, risking injury to both mother and unborn child(ren). Although very young children may be partially protected from exposure to a traumatic incident because they do not fully appreciate the potential danger (Drell et al, 1993; Pynoos, 1993), it is important that we do not ignore or de-emphasize their reactions to violence. Living with domestic violence can also directly affect Infants and toddlers, with negative developmental, social emotional and behavioural consequences, excessive irritability, immature behaviour, sleep disturbances, fears of being alone and regression in toileting and language (Buchanan, 2005). At a time of rapid neurological growth, an infant’s development may be compromised by exposure to ongoing violence, whether or not they are the tar get of the violence (Rossman, 2001). â€Å"Exposure to trauma, especially family violence, interferes with a child’s normal development of trust and later exploratory behaviours, which lead to the development of autonomy. Erickson (1963), held that the development of trust is the initial step in forming healthy relationships. Trust develops early and is primarily contigent on the infant’s relationship with his or her care-giver. If this first psychosocial stage of trust building is successfully resolved, the infant will learn to trust others, which will then help with later relationship building. Mistrust in contrast, can result from a single trauma or from chronic environmental stress. If parents are emotionally unavailable, for instance, or are inconsistent, continually negative, or abusive, the infant or child may fail to develop basic trust (Egeland Erickson, 1987). In light of this theoretical perspective, one must ask how growing up in a violent family may interfere with a child’s developin g trust. For far too many children, those very relationships on which the development of trust and trusting relationships are built may be limited or changeable. Preschool children may develop enuresis and speech disfluencies such as stuttering. Studies carried out in Kenya articulate that preschool and kindergarten, do not understand the meaning of the abuse they observe and tend to believe that they ‘must have done something wrong.’ Self-blame can precipitate feelings of guilt, worry, and anxiety. Young children do not have the ability to adequately express their feelings verbally. Consequently, the manifestation of these emotions is often behavioural. Children become withdrawn, non-verbal, and exhibit regressed behaviours such as clinging and whining. School-aged children As they grow, children in the UK who are exposed to violence may continue to show signs of problems. School-age children may have more trouble with school work, and show poor concentration and focus. They tend not to do well at school (UNICEF, 2006). Some studies suggest social development is also damaged. The aggression children have witnessed also affects their relationships with other children. As Bancroft and Silverman (2002) states, their perspective on relationships is so skewed that they have no idea how to share or cooperate and others lose their ability to feel empathy for others. Others feel socially isolated, unable to make friends as easily due to social discomfort or confusion over what is acceptable. In Kenya, more than half of the school-age children in domestic violence shelters show clinical levels of anxiety or post-traumatic stress disorder. These children are at risk for delinquency, substance abuse, school drop-out, and difficulties in their own relationships (Graham. Whether in the UK or Kenya, witnessing domestic violence can interfere with a child’s healthy development. Children who witness violence early in life may view the world as unpredictable, possibly dangerous or chaotic. The basic attachment of the child to the adult is at risk. This early relationship development is profound and life-lasting (Ref) Dysfunctional-violent families where interparental abuse occurs, also tend to represent failures of secure attachment, and increased risk of direct physical and emotional abuse of the child (Geffner et al, 2000). Adolescents For adolescents, particularly those who have experienced violence exposure throughout their lives, high levels of aggression and acting out are common, accompanied by anxiety, behaviour problems, truancy, and revenge seeking. Although some adolescents who witness domestic violence may be able to overcome the experience, many others suffer considerable scars. Some report giving up hope, expecting that they may not live through adolescence or early childhood. They may become deadened to feelings and pain, with resultant constrictions in emotional development. Or they may attach themselves to peer groups and gangs as substitute family and incorporate violence as a method of dealing with disputes or frustration (Parson, 1994). Literature from Kenya suggests that adolescents have greater ability to externalise negative emotions since they verbalize. They exhibit sleep problems, eating disturbances and nightmares. They also show a loss of interest in social activities, low self-concept, withdrawal or avoidance of peer relations, rebelliousness and oppositional-defiant behaviour in the school setting. It is also common to observe temper tantrums, irritability, frequent fighting at school or between siblings, lashing out at objects, treating pets cruelly or abusively, threatening of peers or siblings with violence. They seek to gain attention through hitting, kicking, or chocking peers and/or family members (Chebogut Ngeno, 2010). Long-Term effects Living with domestic violence can take a lasting toll on children. Nationwide, it is estimated that between 3.3 million and 10 million children are at risk of witnessing domestic violence each year. The long term implications of childhood exposure to domestic violence are substantial. Children learn from witnessing violence in their homes, and what they learn may become precursors of later violent adolescent and adult behaviours. It is not just that the child sees aggression, it is that he or she is learning about â€Å"conditions under which aggression may be applied in intimate relationships† (Margolin, 1995: 34). Thus, children may come to view violence as an acceptable way, perhaps the only way to resolve conflicts and they may learn to rationalize the use of violence-they know nothing else. Many researchers in Kenya have found a connection between witnessing violence in childhood and using violence as an adult. A study by Onyango and Kattambo (2001), showed that boys who had seen their fathers attack their mothers were three times as likely to become batterers as boys raised in non violent homes. In contrast, (ref) states that witnessing violence is not sex specific and that, children who witnessed either parent hitting the other became more violent regardless of their gender. Moreover, the risk of domestic violence for women is nearly doubled if there are children present in the household (Krug et al, 2002). The impact of violence is also felt indirectly, as its effects compromise survivor’s ability to care for any children they may have. In addition to the constraining effect that violence may have on women’s livelihood strategies, research in Kenya suggest that the children of women who suffer domestic violence receive less food because men’s violence adversely affects women’s bargaining position in marriage (Rao Bloch, 1993 cited in Heise, 1995a). Similar with the UK, children of battered mothers in Kenya have high rates of emotional problems like depression and sometimes show delays in learning. Some researchers have attempted to isolate the particular cause of children’s behavioural and emotional difficulties (e.g. Jaffe et al, 1990) and conclude that the impact of witnessing the violence alone is sufficient to cause the children’s disturbances (Silvern Kaersvang, 1989). While few would disagree that witnessing the assault of their mother is a very disturbing experience, it is important to address the entirety of children’s experiences and not focus on particular incidents of physical violence, which are often extreme. It is extremely important that recognition is made of the ongoing controlling behaviour that children and women are subjected to as part of their everyday life. This is particularly so when children may not, in fact, witness the direct physical assaults on their mother but will be very aw are of other forms of abuse (Hanmer et al, 2000). Children must hear it re-affirmed that domestic violence is wrong. They have to see alternative role models in order to grow up with a positive idea o f the future. School-based programmes can reduce aggression and violence by helping children to develop positive attitudes and values, and a broader range of skills to avoid violent behaviour (UNICEF,2006). Viewing domestic violence from a developmental perspective provides a context for recognising that the problems of family violence do not arise anew in adulthood but are the result of many factors that influence children’s and adolescents’ development. There are numerous potential lessons for children who grow up in families in which there is family violence. First, they may learn that it is acceptable to be abusive and that violence is an effective way to get what you want. Children may learn that violence is sometimes justified –particularly when you are angry at someone. They also learn about the traditional power imbalances between men and women (Beckett, 2007) Children who bully move through adolescence into adulthood, they will be at risk for committing other forms of abuse such as sexual harassment, family violence, child abuse. The psychological effects can be even more difficult to deal with than physical injury, partly because they are so hidden and the refore difficult to manifest. CHAPTER 5 COMBATING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE A systems approach that focuses not only on the child but all the interlocking layers that link the child and society has offered a useful theoretical framework for understanding the effects of violence on children. This approach is also useful in informing us of the prevention and intervention strategies aimed at addressing the problem in this chapter (Osofsky, 1995). Children who are exposed to violence in the home are denied their right to a safe and stable home environment. Many are suffering silently with little support. Children who are exposed to violence in the home need trusted adults to turn to for help and comfort, and services that will help them to cope with their experiences. Far more must be done to protect these children and to prevent domestic violence from happening in the first place. Children must have places to go that are safe and supportive, whether it be with extended family or at a domestic violence shelter. Studies suggest that providing interventions to abu sed mothers can also have benefits to children, especially where these efforts take into account the specific needs of children. Children who are exposed to violence in the home need to know that things can change and that violence in the home can end. Children need hope for the future. Public education and awareness-raising campaigns on domestic violence should focus more on the impact on children and specific ways to address this hidden problem. Governments and other public institutions should speak out about the impact of violence in the home on children (UNICEF, 2006). Domestic violence requires changing attitudes that permit such abuse, developing legal and policy framework to prohibit and reject it. Often, domestic violence is under-reported due to fear and feelings of shame. By its nature domestic violence is often hidden from public view, and opportunities for intervention depend largely on victims telling others about their experiences (Veneman, 2007). Domestic violence is a health, legal, economic, educational, developmental and human rights problem. Strategies should be designed to operate across a broad range of areas depending upon the context in which they are delivered (UNICEF, 2000). In Kenya, individuals and community-level institutions can potentially play a crucial role in intervening to stop violent events. However, even when the commitment to support survivors is there, the ability of friends and relatives to do so will vary according to many factors, such as the proximity of parents and friends, and the legitimacy of offering assistance. Women who support their relatives or friends against violence may be faced with serious reprisals, including violence directed at them. Further, with the limited understanding of societal responses and the extent and nature of survivors needs, interventions are not well understood in Kenya, are sporadic and therefore often un-coordinated (Maternowska et. al 2009) In the last few years, many positive steps have been taken to combat domestic violence. Government aid, legal reforms, shelters for battered women, women’s rights organisations, empowerment programmes for women and awareness training for police officers, medical professionals and judges, are examples of these positive steps. Compared to the status of the fight to eliminate domestic violence just ten years ago, great strides have been made. Unfortunately, due to the tremendous amount of work that still exists, those positive steps have sometimes been overlooked (Subrata, 1999). Government Aid An obvious result of the lack of resources in Kenya is an inability to afford the kinds of extensive services now available to domestic violence in United Kingdom. Given that shelters are expensive, NGO’s in Kenya are hard-pressed to provide shelter for victims, and focus instead on providing legal advice and psychological and social support (UNICEF, 2000). However, psychological services are rarely available, and where they are, they are beyond the means of most women. Also, high levels of unemployment make it difficult for a woman to leave her husband and support herself outside the home. (Bowman, 2003). Ensuring adequate protection for women and children from ill-treatment and other abuses remains a challenge in Kenya. For that reason, the Government should take concrete steps to address human rights violations concerning women and children, and to protect them from all forms of violence. Furthermore, the Government should also commit to training both the police and the ju diciary on women’s and children’s human rights and insist that violence against women and children is unacceptable (Annabel, 2004). The police, in an effort to crack down on sexual and domestic violence against women and children, converted one of the city’s oldest police stations, Kilimani, into an all-female station in 2004, exclusively handling cases of sexual assault on women and girls. The idea is to have the station manned by female police officers with special training in dealing with gender based violence. Legal reforms Many activists in Africa have tended to focus on obtaining remedies from the state, most notably, legal reform. But African states are often without the resources to implement many of these reforms if they are passed, the capacity to reinforce its provisions may not exist-there are simply not enough police, nor are they well enough trained or paid to carry out the law. Many of these remedies described are infact very costly and may be beyond the means of a country such as Kenya that has suffered from unfavourable terms of trade, the effects of Structural Adjustments Programs imposed by the World Bank and corruption (Bowman, 2003) All individuals who come into contact with children, including those working in day-care centres, schools, law enforcement agencies, and parenting education groups, should be well-informed about all aspects of domestic and other violence exposure and children, from its precursors to its detection and treatment, and also be versed in alternative conflict resolution strategies (Osofsky, 1995). Working with perpetrators Groupwork with the perpetrators of domestic violence also remains in short supply in the UK, although it is spreading-undertaken most often by the probation service or in the voluntary sector and typically based on cognitive behavioural techniques. It can certainly form one part of an active response to domestic violence, requiring abusive men to take responsibility for their own behaviour and attitudes, although completion rates are low and evaluation to date equivocal (Mullender Burton, 2000). Men’s programmes need long-term monitoring, with feedback from partners to ensure that men are not simply using more subtle abuse tactics or claiming to have changed in order to preserve their relationships. In order to be successful, groups need to be based on clear recognition of domestic violence as an endemic crime. Anger management, for example, is not an appropriate response because men who abuse women are not out of control-they choose the time, place and victim. Anti-discriminatory practice Hague et al (1996) found that many forums had not begun to deal with issues of diversity concerning race, religion, sexuality and class. There were examples however, of some forums beginning to address such issues, especially in relation to race, racism and disability, and of attempts being made to integrate these into the practice of inter-agency work. The main focus of this, however, would appear to relate to women rather than there being any specific consideration of the needs of children. Such anti-discriminatory practice include: developing projects for specific groups of women and children. It is important in multi-agency work to promote anti-discriminatory practice and address equal opportunity issues. This will include a recognition of the relative power positions of the different agencies involved, and active involvement of Women’s Aid and other community based groups, including those from ethnic minorities. Conclusion After clearly demonstrating to the author the nature and context of domestic violence both in Kenya and United Kingdom, I reach a number of conclusions. This literature has attempted to expand common definitions of how children witness adult domestic violence by showing how children not only see violence but also hear it occurring, are used as part of it, and experience the its aftermath. It has brought to light that domestic violence is a global epidemic that kills, tortures, and maims-physically, psychologically, sexually and economically. It is one of the pervasive of human rights violations, denying women and children equality, security, dignity, self-worth, and their right to enjoy fundamental freedoms. The article has also attempted to convey a sense of the contributing factors of domestic violence. Primary attention has been given to reviewing the complex effects on children. The complexity involves not just problems associated with exposure to violence but also various mediat ing factors and coping strategies that children utilize (LOOK BACK IN THE LITERATURE) Domestic violence is tantamount to a societal plague that victimizes thousands of women and children and, to a lesser degree, men. This paper has demonstrated the violent nature of the Kenyan society as well as the serious nature of the problem. It is here suggested that poverty reduction as well as legislation such as a Children’ Act and Domestic violence Act may be some ways of addressing the traumas experienced by Kenyan women and children. Public education and other measures of achieving attitudinal change as well as police training might be useful additional ways of addressing the problem. Much of the work to be done simply continues and expands upon what is already being done by activists and NGOs in Kenya. However, an infusion of governmental or international funds is critical in order to carry out many of the more ambitious projects, such as widespread educational campaigns, training of police officers, establishment of shelters offering multiple services ‘includ ing therapy’ to women and their children, and dedication of resources to prosecution of crimes of violence against intimates. [/level-freee-rstricted] How to cite The prevalence of domestic violence in our societies., Essay examples

Accurate Decision Between Right and Wrong Things

Question: Discuss about the Article for IT Ethics. Answer: Introduction The word ethics binds us with the moral stands, principle, values. Ethics helps us to take the accurate decision between right and wrong things. In other words, by law ethics is something that helps to govern or conduct on a persons behavior. In any country across the world, they all have their own ethics to control over their states. And those who tries to break or go beyond the ethical values they are punished as they conduct a crime in the eye of law. In every field of work all companies carry out their own ethics (Aristotle., and Ross, W. 2000). Not only is that even in family, there ethics are present among our near and dear ones. A term that has been going around all over the world for quite some time in the last half of this decade is web piracy. What that means and what are the laws against it is not something most people are quite familiar with. So in this case study I will try to cast some light onto web piracy and what it's all about. The case in point is the new laws that have been passed in the Australian parliament to ban the illegal downloading of the hit HBO show GOT. Of course this is a case from June 2015, but the piracy case is something that is still going strong in all corners of the world. Most people around the world are well accustomed with the term torrent and downloading torrents. Downloading torrents, well most torrents, is illegal. because the source of uploading these torrents is not the production house or the artist himself, but a third party who has gotten hold of the file illegally and is now letting every person all over the world download the same illegal file without any authoriz ation of the content's owner whatsoever .this, to the owner means nothing more than a loss, mainly financially. Many of the stuff up in the torrent sites are worth a lot of money (Dewey, J. and Tufts, J. 1908). Current numbers show that the amount of downloadable media content in the torrenting sites alone in the UK is about 60bn. This when extrapolated to all over the world will come out to be some exorbitant amount of money which is a direct loss to both the owner as well the governments all over the world? Illegal downloading of torrent has been a problem for the better part of this decade, but it has gathered speed only recently with various government agencies swooping in to track sown these illegal uploaders and downloaders. But the number is low, mostly because of the way torrenting works. While downloading a torrent a person does not download the entire file from one single source, like it happens when suppose u are downloading a file from Microsoft. But it is like taking sm all parts of the file from various sharers all over the world. And the address of these files is nothing but codes and hashes which are extremely difficult to track down. Hence even if they got is trying to bring down the number of these file sharing websites, it is extremely difficult to cut all the heads at once (Frankena, W. 1973). And as soon as this one head is cut many others can sprout. But the new laws passed by the Aussie government will give movie or TV right holders legal counsel against these file sharing websites. recently one of the biggest file sharing website pirate bay was closed down and its founder peter sunder was jailed for five months, but as can be seen the site is again up and running in alternate forms. legally it is very difficult to track down the base of these sites because of the latest player in the market-VPNs. with van it becomes almost impossible to track down the source code for these sites and who runs them because the signal bounces off so many IP s that after a point of time it is just like finding a needle in a hay stack. One of the worst enemies of online intellectual property protecting laws is the ONION routing, which is an extremely sophisticated method of relaying information (read downloading torrent) over the internet (Hartmann, N. and Coit, S. 1932). It uses several layers of protection and bounces the signal of various nodes and IPs creating a virtual mesh where it is impossible to find the source and end point of a signal. And hence these services are much in use in this modern day of torrenting. Even if the Australian government bans web sharing sites, users will find a way to download them using these circumventing softwares which mask your original address and create a fake IP from a different geographical position so that u are able to download the file of your choice illegally. Unless the government finds a way to deal with these tricky and vicious softwares that are mostly used for illegal work, it is going to be a very hard time for people like GOT producers and other movie TV right owners to get the whole of their findings worth. Heres to hoping that they do. Thus, we conclude that ethics are important factor in our day to day life as nowadays life is surrounded by electronic systems, gadgets and many more. References Aristotle., and Ross, W. (2000). Nicomachean ethics. Raleigh, N.C.: Alex Catalogue. Dewey, J. and Tufts, J. (1908). Ethics. New York: H. Holt and Co. Frankena, W. (1973). Ethics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Hartmann, N. and Coit, S. (1932). Ethics. London: G. Allen Unwin Ltd. Hastings, J. (1910). Encyclopaedia of religion and ethics. Edinburgh: Clark [u.a.]. Nowell-Smith, P. (1954). Ethics. [London]: [Penguin Books].

Juvenile Corrections Essays - Penology, Prison, Workhouse

Juvenile Corrections Jeshondra Lucas CJ 564 Seminar in Corrections Mississippi Valley State University November 27, 2017 The historical development of the juvenile justice system dates back to the Roman Times. The Roman law gave parents the responsibility for punishing their child. Back in the Roman times, the child's age was the factor of if the juveniles were capable of being punished by their parents, or if they would be punished by the court with adult charges. At seven years of age, in the Roman law if that child had committed a crime. The child would be held accountable for their actions and no longer be under the punishment of their parents, but under the punishment of their king. In England in the 1500's shires and other people were to carry out what the king had wanted done. The Bridewell Workhouse was built in London in 1557, this workhouse was a place where inmates would go to provide cheap labor to please mercantile. Guards claimed that the work that the inmates were doing was therapeutic and rehabilitative. In the Middle Ages, children were seen as property. Male children were the head of all households and the patriarch handled his homes as he pleased. When parents broke the law, the children were forced to take care of themselves. A lot of them stole things to provide for the family, placing them in the same situation to face adult charges. During the 1600s in England, government began to consider the plight of the child (Clear, Reisig, Cole, 2016.) Children fell under the protection of the king or queen. The crown would act as the parens patriae which means the crown could act as a guardian of any child, especially one with rights to inherited property. In the United States Juvenile Justice has shifted to reflect social, intellectual, and political currents of crime. The Puritan Period takes place from 1646-1824. Americans stopped the practice of English laws in the 1800s. The Massachusetts Stubborn Child Law in 1646 was an early attempt to deal with problem children. The Puritans simply voiced the need for problem children to be disciplined by their parents and those who refused to obey their parents be dealt with by law. The Refuge Period was 1824-1899, children were urged to learn good work habits and study skills. More reform happened throughout the Juvenile Court Period of 1899-1960, The Juvenile Rights Period of 1960-1980, Crime Control Period of 1980-2005, and the Evidence Based Period of 2005 to present days. From 1930 through 1980, the incarceration rate was pretty stable in the United States (Clear, Reisig, Cole, 2016.) In today's society there has been tremendous growth leading to prison overcrowding. We cite prison overcrowding by five reasons since the crime rate does not match the incarceration rate. We credit the increase of prisoners to increased arrests and more likely incarceration, tougher sentencing, prison construction, the war on drugs, and state and local politics. There are nearly 19 state prison systems that operate above capacity. Prison overcrowding may violate constitutional standards, decrease access to some much needed programs and services, create major administrative problems, and increase prison violence. The Null Strategy, Construction Strategy, Intermediate Sanctions and Prison Population Reduction are four ways the states try to combat prison crowding. A lot of sentences are due to the race and ethnicity of the person committing the crime. Disparity is of ten used to target certain groups. References: Clear, T. R., Reisig, M. D., Cole, G. F. (2016). American Corrections (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Understanding the Eval () PHP Language Construct

Understanding the Eval () PHP Language Construct The PHP eval () construct is used to evaluate an input string as PHP and then process it as such. Eval() is not a function, but it works like one in the sense that it outputs everything- except instead of outputting it as text, it outputs it as PHP code to be executed. One use of the eval() construct is to store code in a database to execute later. Example of Eval() LanguageConstruct Here is a simple example of coding for the eval() language construct. ; eval(\$a \$a\;); print $a . ; ? This code example outputs My friends are $name and $name2 when first called with the print statement, and it outputs  My friends are Joe and Jim when called the second time after running eval (). Requirements and Characteristics of Eval() The passed code cant be wrapped in opening and closing PHP tags.The passed code must be valid PHP.All statements must be terminated with a semicolon.A return statement terminates the code evaluation.Any variable defined or changed in eval() remains after it terminates.What a fatal error occurs in the evaluated code, the script exits.Because eval() is a language construct and not a function, it cant be used in higher-order functions. The Danger of Using Eval() The PHP manual discourages the use of the eval() construct, stressing its use is very dangerous because arbitrary PHP code can be executed. Users are instructed to use any other option than eval() unless that is not possible. The use of PHP eval() construct presents security risks.

Mobile Computing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Mobile Computing - Research Paper Example Further, the mobile banking security risks also cause distortion of the financial information and transactions of the victim. Ultimately, the whole system of mobile banking is compromised. This escalates the number of fraud cases with every attempt at conveniently performing business transactions via the mobile phones. Most financial institutions, including the best in the world, can attest to the insecurity of mobile banking (Odoke, 2011). The technology behind the personal data assistants, iPads and e-Readers demystify the need for newspapers, paper books, music CDs and gameDVDs. This is due to various valid reasons. First, the advanced gadgets offer faster solutions for the thirst of information than the original books and newspapers. Further, information that the gadgets give people access to is from different sources. This makes them a better option for comparison of information from different sources than the traditional newspapers and books. People get timely updates from their gadgets instead of waiting for publishing of newspapers and paper books (Guardian on Kindle). The combined efforts of these advantages of the new technology gadgets drive the public from acquiring the traditional newspapers and paper books. This changes the reading culture of people and decreases the amount of revenue from the sale of books, newspapers and other traditional devices. The public chooses to move to a cheaper way of acquiring information and entertainment; a more convenient means that suits almost everyone’s lifestyle (Curwen & Whalley,

School Vouchers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

School Vouchers - Essay Example Due to the multifaceted effect of the said system it is important to consider the advantages of the system over the disadvantages (Walberg, and Wang 2-15). When it comes to the study of the issues regarding the voucher system for schools, there are the two sides. The side that affirm the importance of the used of the school vouchers and the side that questions the feasibility of the propositions and policies are vital to the study of the school voucher system (Kupermintz 2). The main objective of the study if to present the importance of the application of school voucher system. To be able to determine the importance of school voucher system, views on the different aspects are required. Based on the study of the different issues related to the system, there are different points that can be given attention. These points include the educational aspect itself, social aspect, and political aspect. It is important to give attention to these issues to be able to realize the vitality of the voucher system. The primary evidence of the importance and applicability of the school voucher is in relation to the a... Although there are different contradictions and criticism regarding the issue, it is important to consider that the main objective is to be able to provide access to education. The subsequent evidence in support of the school voucher system is the aim of the proponents of the establishment of the system to target the improvement in terms of educating the population. Generally the view of the group that opposes the system is the fact that optimization of the resources if not guaranteed and that the possible loss in terms of fund can be put to the improvement of the public schools which are considered to require more form the government to be able to improve. This can be considered to be affected by the school vouchers due to the fact that in most cases these privileges are also from the government and government officials. Although there is an important point being presented by the groups that question the feasibility of the school vouchers it is important to consider the different advantages that are related to the system. It can be considered as an optimistic action to be able to alleviate a larger portion of the population from illiteracy. It can be considered as a bold action to be able to pursue the advocacy for school voucher due to the fact that it is opt to be questioned by different groups. The advocacy for the continuance of the school voucher system is important for the people who have the capability to avail the requirements and the privileges of the provision system due to the fact that the people being helped can make the difference. When it comes to the different aspects that can be discerned by the groups and institutions in the society that are against the continuation of the provision of school

Hispanic American Diversity Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Hispanic American Diversity - Research Paper Example The end result is that the inhabitants of the country, whether legalized citizens or otherwise can now be classified into several distinct groups such as Whites, Hispanics, African Americans, and Asians. Hispanics now constitute the second largest classifiable ethnic group in the United States after Whites. This paper reviews the second largest ethnic group in the country, namely the Hispanics, or the Latinos as they are often commonly referred to. The Hispanics are primarily Spanish speaking immigrants from the regions south of the United States, and include immigrants from countries such as Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic. They have a lot in common even though many factors prevent a uniform classification. The clichà © ‘unity in diversity’ may not hold good here because the political, social, economic, religious, and family factors within each of these immigrants vary. Hence, this paper will also study the diversity and commonality among Hispanic groups with focus on the above mentioned factors. Every immigrant population will have a history or reason for migration to another land. In this case, history has played a diverse and decisive role in each of the above group’s large scale presence in United States’ soil. Some of them had moved because of political unrest while others have moved to exploit the better economic and social conditions that prevailed in the United States. Of the four major ethnic groups in the USA, only Mexico shares a geographical border which is nearly 2.000 miles long. Patrolling the border is a problem especially due to movement of illegal immigrants from Mexico. Schaefer (2006) in his book ‘Racial and Ethnic Groups’ records that â€Å"in the war-ending Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed February 2, 1848, Mexico acknowledged the annexation of Texas by the United States and ceded California and most of Arizona and New Mexico to the United States for $15 million† (258). This resulted

Adaptation of the Fennec Fox to the Desert

Adaptation of the Fennec Fox to the Desert How the fennec fox (Vulpes zedra) has adapted to the desert environment The fennec fox is the smallest member of the Vulpes genus (formally in the Fennecus genus) only weighing 2.2 – 3.3 lbs. It is highly distinguishable by its huge ears measuring 6 inches, and a body length of up to 16 inches. It is a nocturnal animal that stays in its burrow and rests for the hottest parts of the day (The Nature of Wildworks, 2014.). It is a highly social animal and lives in family groups of up to 10 individuals (Fox, 1975). Formerly in the fennecus genus, it was later re-classified into the Vulpes genus which is the main taxonomic group of all foxes. Its geographical range is the north Sahara and Arabian deserts. The fox is under decline due to being hunted for the fur and pet trade which has had significant impacts on the wild species (The Nature of Wildworks, 2014.) The fennec fox has many adaptions to living in a desert environment. These can be broken down into 3 categories; Morphological, Physiological and Behavioural. Morphological Morphological adaptions are changes in the animal’s structure that helps it adapt to the extreme conditions of the Saharan dessert. One of the most significant morphological adaptations that the fennec possesses is its large ears. The ears are used to dissipate heat and maintain the optimum body temperature of the animal (Wathen, et al., 1971). The ear needs to be large to have a large surface area for heat dissipation. The statement that these actually cool the animal is not entirely true, they do not cool the animal and lower its body temperature, but instead maintain the optimum body temperature. In a study on jack rabbits, the ears were found to dissipate nearly 100% of all metabolic heat at air temperatures of only 30Â °C (Wathen, et al., 1971). This is only possible if the temperature of the fox is above the environmental temperature. The ears also play a critical role in nocturnal hunting (Wathen, et al., 1971). The large pinnae of the ear help direct low level sound i nto the ear which gives the fennec acute hearing allowing directional hearing (Ewer, 1973). This is a key adaption for hunting at night due to the low light levels, thus giving the fennec the ability to hunt effectively at night using sound as well as excellent night vision. The feet of the fennec are adapted to walking on the hot sand by having hairs covering their fleshy foot pads (Ewer, 1973). This prevents the foot from actually touching the scolding sand and will prevent injury when the fox is digging its burrow and walking across the hot dessert floor. The front paws are specially designed for digging burrows which the fennecs live and breeds in (Ewer, 1973). The fur of the fennec like most dessert animals is vital to coping with desert life. Not only does this insulate the animal, but studies have shown that the light fur of the animal can also reflect the solar radiation, therefore lessening the impact and reducing the heat load on the animal (Dawson Brown, 1970). This is most true in the fennec fox due to its sandy coloured or sometimes white fur. Meanwhile the thickness of the fur is a protection from the solar radiation of the skin. By creating this barrier, the fur prevents any damage to the skin from direct solar radiation. This is because the fur, as said before, partially reflects the solar radiation while the thicker deeper fur absorbs the heat (Dawson Brown, 1970). The heat absorption also helps the fox survive the freezing dessert nights while it feeds, by preventing the fennecs core body temperature from dropping too low. Physiological Physiological adaptions are changes in the animal’s system processes to enable them to adapt to changes in the environment. These changes enable the fennec to adapt to the extreme environment of the North African deserts. Carnivores, just as the fennec, are found in a number of deserts around the world. A major challenge that these organisms face is the replenishment of water. The fennec gains its water requirements solely from having mostly a carnivorous diet. The fennec, by eating alone, can maintain its water balance for over 100 days without having to drink (Vaughn, et al., 2000). This is done by the fennec having very concentrated urine that uses the least amount of water possible to function. This conserves a vast amount of water and coupled with its very low evaporate loss. Therefore it rivals small desert rodents in its water conservation (Vaughn, et al., 2000). This relates to selective predation and an ability to feed on a wide variety of food stuffs, while being abl e to become more economical with its metabolic water. The adaption of having a low basal metabolic rate is crucial to survival in dessert conditions. The fennec is no exception to this; it has one of the lowest BMRs of all Vulpes species of 60.7 percent (Golightly Ohmart, 1983). This means at rest the fox only uses the minimal amount of water needed to survive. This adaption allows a minimalized endogenous heat load which conserves metabolic water. This saving of water becomes critical in the desert due to the low precipitation levels and therefore having the adaptation of a low BMR helps maintain any dietary water acquired and conserves it. Behavioural Behavioural adaptations are changes in the animals conduct help it survive in a certain environment. Previously, little was known about the fennec foxes diet. It was previously thought that they were primarily insectivores and had barely any variety in their diet. However, a new study has shown that they are actually opportunistic feeders with food items being mostly insects, but it also feeds on small mammals and even plant material (Brahmi, et al., 2012). The study also shows that locality and abundance of food can also change the feeding behaviour of the fennec. This adaption is critical to the survival of any dessert animals. The ability to feed on many different food sources opens up many more niches and availability for the animal to survive and feed (Brahmi, et al., 2012). Panting is an adaption that requires short shallow respiration and is solely used in heat dissipation. Panting makes use of evaporative cooling of the mouth, lung and nasal mucosa. This is a very effective way of cooling down without having to sweat. This main advantage over sweating is that in sweating there is salt loss, while in panting there is not (Vaughn, et al., 2000). This is key to the survival of the fennec because of the shortage of food; therefore the fennec cannot regain the salt quicker than the animal uses up. If the fennec sweated this could become a huge problem, so it has overcome this problem by making use of the more efficient panting for heat dissipation (Vaughn, et al., 2000). Fennec fox families live and thrive in burrows; these help counteract the daily effects of high temperature and low humidity of the desert days. They provide shelter from sun exposure and the highest temperatures of the dessert day. A study in tortoises shows that burrows provide a great place to refuge in a desert environment. The study showed that the burrow at 10:00 -12:00 hrs had much higher humidity and lower temperature than the external environment (Bulova, 2002). This lowers the total evaporate water loss which helps the animal, in this case the fennec, conserve metabolic water, which is key to desert survival. Fennecs therefore make use of the much more stable and milder environment inside the burrow. This helps shelter the fennec from extreme conditions and helps conserve water. This is due to the soil temperature maintaining stability no matter what the conditions are outside. The burrow controls the internal environment due to the thermal insulating properties of the soil (Reichman Smith, 1990). Therefore the burrow is cooler during the day and warmer during the freezing desert nights. Conclusion To conclude there are many adaptations the fennec has; may that be morphological, physiological and behavioural. The adaptations are a necessity to survive in such an extreme climate, such as the dessert; with high heat loads during the day, freezing temperatures in the night, food and water sources are scarce. The adaptions that the fennec utilises all boil down to protection from the incredible temperature change in the dessert, by having large ears to dissipate heat and fur that can reflect but also absorb the heat. This gives protection from solar radiation during the day, and insulation during the night. The other main reason for having many complex adaptations is to conserve water. The fennec’s metabolic water level is maintained by having a low BMR which uses less water in metabolic activity at rest, and also the concentrated urine which reduces the loss of water via waste. In my mind the fennec fox is perfectly adapted to cope with the extremes of desert life, by contr olling its water conservation and body temperature. Word count: 1,508 References: Brahmi, K. et al., 2012. First quantitative data on the diet of the fennec fox, Vulpes zerda (Canidae, Carnivora), in Algeria. Folia Zoologica, 61(1), pp. 61-70. Bulova, j., 2002. How temperature, humidity, and burrow selection affect evaporative water loss in desert tortoises. Journal Of Thermal Biology, 27(3), pp. 175-189. Dawson, T. Brown, G., 1970. Comparison Of The Insulative AndReflective Properties Of The Fur of Desert Kangaroos. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Volume 37, pp. 23-28. Ewer, R., 1973. The Carnivores. 1st ed. s.l.:weidenfeld and nicolson. Fox, M., 1975. The Wild Canids Their Systematics, Behavioural Ecology and Evolution. 1st ed. s.l.:Litton Educational Publishing, Inc. Golightly, R. Ohmart, R., 1983. Metabolism and body temperature of two desert canids: cototes and kit foxes. Journal of Mammalogy, 64(4), pp. 624-635. The Nature of Wildworks. 2014. The Nature of Wildworks. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.natureofwildworks.org/species.html#ffox. [Accessed 12 February 2014]. Reichman, O. Smith, S., 1990. Burrows And Burrowing Behavior By Mammals. Current Mammalogy, pp. 197-224. Vaughn, t., Ryan, J. Czaplewski, N., 2000. Mammology. 4th ed. s.l.:Saunders college publishing. Wathen, P., Mitchell, J. Porter, W., 1971. Theoretical and Experimental Studies of Energy Exchange from Jackrabbit Ears and Cylindrically Shaped Appendages. Biophysical Journal, 11(12), pp. 1030-1047. Harvard – Anglia 2008